Caste Census

Why in News?The Union government  has announced that the forthcoming population census will include a caste census.Union Home Minister Amit Shah referred to this as a “historic decision” aimed at ensuring “social justice.”

Relevance : Pre & Mains

Prelims: NPR/NRC/ Intelligent Character Recognition (ICR)

Mains : GS I: Indian Heritage, Culture, Society, and Geography

GS II: Governance, Constitution, Polity, Social Justice, and International Relations

What is a Census in India?

A census in India is a decennial (every 10 years) exercise to collect, compile, and analyze demographic, social, and economic data about the entire population. It provides a detailed snapshot of the country’s population, including age, gender, occupation, education, housing, caste, religion, and more. It is one of the largest administrative exercises globally, conducted under the Census Act of 1948, and serves as the foundation for government planning, policy-making, and resource allocation.

Historical Background:

Earliest Records: Evidence of population counts exists in ancient texts like the Rigveda (800-600 BCE) and Kautilya’s Arthashastra (3rd century BCE), which mention population statistics for taxation and governance. During the Mughal era, Ain-i-Akbari under Emperor Akbar included data on population, industry, and wealth.

British Era: The first asynchronous census began in 1872 under Viceroy Lord Mayo, though it was not uniform across India. The first synchronous census was conducted on February 17, 1881, by W.C. Plowden, the Census Commissioner. Censuses continued periodically from 1865 to 1941, facing challenges like lack of house numbering, cultural objections, and logistical issues (e.g., wild animals).

Post-Independence: After 1949, the Office of the Registrar General and Census Commissioner (ORGI), under the Ministry of Home Affairs, took over. The first post-independence census was in 1951, conducted under the 1948 Census Act. As of 2011, 15 censuses have been completed.

How is the Census Conducted?

The census is conducted in two main phases:

House Listing and Housing Census:

• Conducted over several months (e.g., April-September 2010 for the 2011 census).
• Enumerators record details of all buildings, their type, amenities, and assets, and create a household list. This phase also collects data for the National Population Register (NPR).

Population Enumeration:

• Typically held over a short period (e.g., February 9-28, 2011, with a revisional round March 1-5, 2011).
• Enumerators visit every household to gather detailed personal data (age, marital status, religion, caste/tribe, education, disability, economic activity, migration, fertility for women, etc.).

Technology: Since 2001, India has used Intelligent Character Recognition (ICR) to scan and digitize forms. The 2021 census (now delayed to 2025) plans to use mobile apps and a census portal for self-enumeration, reducing paper use, with 3.3 million enumerators encouraged to use smartphones.

Methodology: A door-to-door canvasser method is used, with enumerator-collected data counter-signed and, in rural areas, approved by Gram Sabhas and Panchayats.

Administrative Freezing: Boundaries of administrative units (districts, tehsils) are frozen a year before the census to ensure data consistency, though this has been extended multiple times recently (e.g., to June 30, 2024, as of the latest updates).

Who conducts the Census?

• The Office of the Registrar General and Census Commissioner, India (ORGI), under the Ministry of Home Affairs, is responsible.
• A network of 34 Directorates of Census Operations supports the headquarters in New Delhi.
• Temporary enumerators (government servants) and data entry operators (via Central Public Sector Enterprises) are deployed, with training provided through a cascade approach (national to state to district levels).

Key Census Data and Historical Milestones:

• First Census: 1872 (asynchronous); first synchronous in 1881.
• Post-1949 Censuses: 1951, 1961, 1971, 1981, 1991, 2001, 2011.
• 2011 Census:

• Population: 1,210,854,977 (623.7 million males, 586.5 million females).
• Sex ratio: 943 females per 1,000 males; child sex ratio (0-6 years): 914.
• Literacy rate: 74.04% (effective rate for age 7+).
• Households: 248.8 million; religions: 79.8% Hindu, 14.23% Muslim, 2.3% Christian, etc.
• Languages: 57.1% know Hindi (43.63% mother tongue); 490,000 transgender individuals counted for the first time.
• Density: 382 persons/sq.km.
• Uttar Pradesh (199.8 million) is the most populous state; Sikkim (0.61 million) the least.

• 1921 Census: Known as the “Year of the Great Divide” due to a population decline from famine.
• Delays: The 2021 census, originally planned for April 2020-February 2021, was postponed due to the COVID-19 pandemic and remains unscheduled as of May 2025. The next census is tentatively set for 2025, with data release expected by March 2026.

Socio-Economic and Caste Census (SECC):

• Launched in 2011 by the Ministry of Rural Development (rural areas) and Ministry of Housing and Urban Poverty Alleviation (urban areas), coordinated with ORGI.
• Aimed to rank households by socio-economic status and collect caste data, the first since 1931.
• Challenges: Respondent-based data led to numerous caste/sub-caste categories, and the 2020 government rejected OBC data inclusion for 2021. In 2025, caste enumeration is confirmed for the upcoming census (per recent announcements).

Implications of the Caste Census in India:

• A caste census, which involves collecting detailed data on caste identities alongside the decennial population census, has significant implications for India’s social, political, economic, and administrative landscape.

Social Implications:

Visibility of Marginalized Groups:

• A caste census will provide updated data on the population of Scheduled Castes (SC), Scheduled Tribes (ST), Other Backward Classes (OBC), and other caste groups, estimated at over 4,000 sub-castes. This could highlight disparities in education, health, and employment, potentially leading to targeted welfare programs.

Reducing Inequality:

• Accurate data could expose the socio-economic status of underprivileged castes, pushing for affirmative action to bridge gaps (e.g., higher representation in jobs, education).

Social Tensions

• Publishing caste data might exacerbate caste-based divisions, revive historical rivalries, or fuel demands for reservations from newly identified groups, risking social unrest.

Political Implications:

Reservation Policies:

• The census will inform the expansion or revision of reservation quotas in education, government jobs, and political representation (e.g., Lok Sabha seats). With OBCs estimated at 41-52% of the population (per SECC 2011), pressure may mount for increased quotas beyond the current 50% cap.

Delimitation Exercise:

• Post-2026 census data will drive the redrawing of electoral constituencies by 2028, potentially shifting power toward states with larger SC/ST/OBC populations (e.g., Uttar Pradesh, Bihar). This could influence the 33% women’s reservation implementation, with caste as a factor.

 Political Mobilization:

• Parties like the BJP, Congress, and regional outfits (e.g., RJD, SP) may use caste data to tailor manifestos, risking polarization. The opposition’s push for a caste census (a 2024 election issue) reflects its strategic use to consolidate vote banks.

Economic Implications:

Resource Allocation:

• Governments can better target subsidies, infrastructure, and development funds to caste-based socio-economic clusters, addressing poverty in rural OBC and SC/ST communities (e.g., ~30% of OBCs below the poverty line per SECC).

Policy Reform:

• Data could justify new schemes or expand existing ones (e.g., Eklavya schools for STs), but funding challenges may arise if demands exceed budgetary capacity.

Market Insights:

• Businesses could use caste demographics for targeted marketing or hiring, though this might reinforce caste stereotypes if misused.

Administrative Implications:

Data-Driven Governance:

• Updated caste statistics will refine the National Population Register (NPR) and welfare databases, improving efficiency in schemes like the Public Distribution System or MGNREGA.

Implementation Challenges:

• Enumerating over 4,000 sub-castes (as seen in SECC 2011’s 46 lakh forms) requires robust training and technology, with risks of errors or undercounting, especially in remote areas.

Legal and Policy Updates:

• The census may prompt amendments to the Constitution (g., Article 15, 16) or new laws to accommodate caste-based demands, necessitating bureaucratic overhaul.

Controversies and Challenges:

Accuracy and Trust:

• The 2011 SECC’s respondent-based data led to inconsistencies (e.g., over 1.43 crore caste/sub-caste entries), and the 2020 government rejected OBC data inclusion. Public skepticism about data misuse (e.g., for NRC or profiling) could affect participation.

Political Backlash:

• The BJP has historically resisted a caste census, fearing it could undermine national unity or benefit opposition parties. The 2025 inclusion reflects political pressure but may face implementation hurdles.

Regional Disparities:

• States with strong caste identities (e.g., Tamil Nadu, Bihar) may demand disproportionate benefits, leading to inter-state conflicts.

Long-Term Implications

Social Justice

• A successful caste census could fulfill the Mandal Commission’s vision of equitable representation, addressing historical injustices against lower castes since the 1931 census.

Constitutional Debate

• It may reignite discussions on caste-based census permanence or its linkage with citizenship registers, influencing India’s secular framework.

Global Perception

• India’s caste data disclosure could attract international scrutiny on human rights and equality, impacting its global image.

What is NPR?

• The National Population Register (NPR) is a database of all “usual residents” of India, defined as individuals who have resided in a local area for the past six months or more, or intend to stay for another six months. It includes both Indian citizens and foreign nationals.
• It was first prepared in 2010 alongside the 2011 census house-listing phase and updated in 2015, with plans for further updates (e.g., originally scheduled for 2020-2021, now delayed to 2025 due to the COVID-19 pandemic).
• Prepared under the Citizenship Act, 1955 and the Citizenship (Registration of Citizens and Issue of National Identity Cards) Rules, 2003, it is mandatory for every usual resident to register.
• The NPR collects demographic data (e.g., name, age, gender, address, parents’ details) and, since 2015, biometric data (photographs, fingerprints, iris scans for those aged 5+), which is shared with the Unique Identification Authority of India (UIDAI) for de-duplication and Aadhaar linkage.
• Objective: To create a comprehensive identity database to improve governance, policy formulation, beneficiary targeting, and national security.

What is NRC?

• The National Register of Citizens (NRC) is a register of all Indian citizens, intended to verify and document those legally residing in India. Unlike the NPR, it focuses solely on citizenship status.
• The first NRC was created in 1951 in Assam based on the 1951 census, but it was not maintained until a Supreme Court-ordered update began in 2013, culminating in a final list on August 31, 2019. This excluded 1.9 million people from Assam’s 33 million population, raising statelessness concerns.
• The nationwide NRC is proposed under the same 2003 Citizenship Rules, where local officials would verify citizenship from NPR data, though no specific implementation date or rules have been notified yet.
• Objective: To identify and exclude illegal immigrants, particularly in border states like Assam, amid concerns over infiltration from Bangladesh.

Key differences:

• Scope: NPR includes all residents (citizens and non-citizens), while NRC is limited to citizens.
• Purpose: NPR is a broad identity database; NRC is a citizenship verification tool.
• Process: NPR is collected via enumeration during the census house-listing phase; NRC requires additional citizenship proof (e.g., birth certificates, historical documents), often application-based (as in Assam).
• Legal Basis: Both are governed by the Citizenship Act, 1955, and 2003 Rules, but NRC involves a verification step post-NPR.

Connection between NPR and NRC:

• The government has stated that NPR is a precursor to NRC. After compiling resident data in the NPR, a nationwide NRC would involve verifying citizenship, potentially marking individuals as “doubtful citizens” for further inquiry.
• However, the government has clarified (e.g., via Home Minister Amit Shah) that there is no current plan to conduct a nationwide NRC based on NPR data, and no NRC followed the 2010 or 2015 NPR updates.
• The Assam NRC was an exception, driven by Supreme Court oversight and local anti-immigration sentiment, not directly tied to the nationwide NPR process.