UPSC MAINS -2025
GS PAPER-1
Model Answer
1.Discuss the salient features of the Harappan architecture. (Answer in 150 words) – 10
हड़प्पा स्थापत्य कला के मुख्य विशेषताओं की चर्चा कीजिए। (उत्तर 150 शब्दों में दीजिए) – 10
The Harappan Civilization (c. 2500–1750 BCE), also known as the Indus Valley Civilization, represents one of the world’s earliest urban cultures. Its architecture reflects remarkable achievements in town planning, civic amenities, and monumental structures, showcasing the scientific and cultural maturity of the age.
Planned Urban Settlements:
- Grid pattern: Cities like Harappa, Mohenjo-Daro, Kalibangan, and Dholavira were laid out on a grid system with streets running north–south and east–west.
- Zoning: Clear demarcation of citadel (for administrative/religious buildings) and lower town (for residences and workshops).
- Example: Mohenjo-Daro’s citadel area and lower residential zone.
Advanced Building Techniques:
- Burnt bricks: Extensive use of uniformly baked bricks of standardized size.
- Mortar-less joints: Bricks were joined with mud mortar, indicating durability and cost-effectiveness.
- Example: Granaries at Harappa and Lothal constructed with baked bricks.
Public Architecture:
- Granaries: Large storage structures at Harappa and Mohenjo-Daro suggest a centralized economy.
- Great Bath (Mohenjo-Daro): A unique water tank with waterproof brick lining and efficient drainage—possibly used for ritual bathing.
- Assembly Hall (Mohenjo-Daro): A large pillared hall, indicating social or political gatherings.
Drainage and Water Management:
- Covered drainage system: Every house was connected to main drains covered with slabs—an advanced sanitation model.
- Wells and reservoirs: Numerous private and public wells; Dholavira had water reservoirs carved out of rocks.
- Example: Dholavira’s sophisticated water conservation system.
Residential Architecture:
- Houses: Built around central courtyards with multiple rooms, staircases, and private wells.
- Uniformity: Indicating social equality with minor variations for elites.
- Example: Large houses in Mohenjo-Daro with private wells.
Fortifications and Defence:
- Thick mud-brick walls: Surrounding cities for protection against floods and possible invasions.
- Example: Citadel walls at Kalibangan and Harappa.
Functional and Utilitarian Design:
- Architecture emphasized functionality over ornamentation—practical, utilitarian, and community-focused rather than decorative.
- Absence of grand palaces or temples indicates a society with collective civic priorities.
Conclusion:
The Harappan architecture was characterized by scientific town planning, advanced drainage, public utility structures, and functional residential designs. Its emphasis on civic life and urban efficiency rather than monumental glorification sets it apart from contemporary civilizations like Mesopotamia and Egypt. The architectural legacy of the Harappans stands as a testimony to their ingenuity, foresight, and commitment to collective welfare.
2.Examine the main aspects of Akbar’s religious syncretism. (Answer in 150 words) – 10
अकबर के धार्मिक समन्वय के मुख्य पहलुओं की समीक्षा कीजिए। (उत्तर 150 शब्दों में दीजिए) – 10
Mughal Emperor Akbar (1556–1605) is remembered not only for his administrative and military achievements but also for his efforts in building a culture of religious syncretism in medieval India.
Sulh-i-Kul (Universal Peace):
- Central doctrine of Akbar’s policy of tolerance.
- Advocated respect for all religions, non-discrimination in governance, and focus on ethical living.
- Abolition of Jizya tax (1564) and Pilgrimage tax are practical examples.
Abolition of Religious Discrimination:
- Appointment of Hindus (e.g., Raja Todar Mal, Birbal, Man Singh) in high administrative and military positions.
- Marriage alliances with Rajput princesses without imposing conversion.
- Religious freedom granted to Jesuit missionaries, Jains, Parsis, and Sikhs.
Ibadat Khana (House of Worship, 1575):
- Built at Fatehpur Sikri for interfaith discussions.
- Initially confined to Muslim scholars, later extended to Hindus, Christians, Jains, Zoroastrians, and atheists.
- Reflected Akbar’s intellectual curiosity and search for common ethical truths.
Din-i-Ilahi (Religion of God, 1582):
- An ethical order blending elements from various faiths (Hinduism, Islam, Christianity, Jainism, Zoroastrianism).
- Emphasized piety, vegetarianism, non-violence, loyalty to the emperor, and rejection of orthodoxy.
- Though it had few followers (Birbal being the most noted), it symbolized Akbar’s vision of syncretism rather than mass conversion.
Patronage of Diverse Traditions:
- Support to translation projects (Mahabharata into Persian as Razmnama).
- Patronized Hindu, Jain, Sufi, and Persian art and architecture.
- Interest in Zoroastrian fire rituals and Jain principles of non-violence.
Challenges & Limitations:
- Orthodox Ulema opposed Akbar’s heterodox policies, branding him as heretic.
- Din-i-Ilahi never became a popular mass movement, limited to a small circle.
- Syncretism remained largely an elite-driven experiment rather than grassroots social reform.
Conclusion:
Akbar’s religious syncretism was a progressive experiment in cultural pluralism, centuries ahead of its time. While it could not crystallize into a permanent religious movement, it fostered an environment of tolerance, cultural fusion, and inclusivity that became the hallmark of Mughal India. His vision of Sulh-i-Kul continues to resonate as a model for harmony in a diverse society like India.
3.The sculptors filled the Chandella artform with resilient vigor and breadth of life: Elucidate. (Answer in 150 words) – 10
शिल्पकारों ने चंदेल कला रूप को स्थायी शक्ति और विस्तार से भर दिया : स्पष्ट कीजिए। (उत्तर 150 शब्दों में दीजिए) – 10
The Chandella dynasty (9th–13th century CE) in central India (Bundelkhand region, present-day Madhya Pradesh) is most renowned for the Khajuraho group of temples (UNESCO World Heritage Site).
Key Features of Chandella Artform:
Khajuraho Temples (950–1050 CE):
- Built mainly under rulers like Yashovarman and Dhanga.
• Around 85 temples were constructed, of which about 25 survive.
• Dedicated to Hindu deities (Shiva, Vishnu) and Jain Tirthankaras.
Sculptural Vigor:
- Sculptures embody movement, rhythm, and vitality—from dancing apsaras to warriors in action.
• Depictions of gods, celestial beings, musicians, and common people create a living panorama of medieval society.
Erotica as a Metaphor:
- Erotic sculptures on outer walls symbolize tantric traditions and the philosophy of kama as a part of life’s four purusharthas (dharma, artha, kama, moksha).
• Examples: Mithuna (loving couples) sculptures at Lakshmana and Kandariya Mahadeva temples.
Breadth of Life:
- Everyday scenes: farmers, hunters, musicians, dancers, and court life.
• Animal motifs like elephants, lions, and mythical creatures add realism and vigor.
• Jain temples (e.g., Parsvanatha Temple) emphasize spirituality and simplicity, showing diversity in patronage.
Architectural Grandeur:
- Kandariya Mahadeva Temple: tallest and most ornate, symbolizing Mount Meru.
• Use of sandstone, intricate carvings, and lofty shikharas giving a sense of upward movement (spiritual ascent).
Conclusion:
Chandella artform, especially at Khajuraho, represents a fusion of spiritual devotion and worldly celebration.
• Sculptors immortalized the resilient vigor of life, transcending the boundaries of religion, and left behind a timeless legacy where art, architecture, and human emotions coexist harmoniously.
4.How are climate change and sea-level rise affecting the very existence of many island nations? Discuss with examples. (Answer in 150 words) – 10
जलवायु परिवर्तन तथा समुद्र स्तर की वृद्धि से अनेक द्वीप राष्ट्रों के अस्तित्व पर कैसे प्रभाव पड़ रहे हैं? उदाहरण सहित विवेचना कीजिए। (उत्तर 150 शब्दों में दीजिए) – 10
Climate change has accelerated global warming, melting glaciers, and thermal expansion of oceans.
• Small Island Developing States (SIDS) are the most vulnerable, as sea-level rise directly threatens their land, livelihoods, and sovereignty.
• The IPCC (2023) warns that sea levels could rise up to 1 meter by 2100, submerging several low-lying islands.
Impact on Island Nations:
- Submergence of Land
• Maldives: Average ground level only 1.5 meters above sea level—could become uninhabitable by 2100.
• Kiribati: Already purchased land in Fiji (2014) for future resettlement of its population. - Loss of Freshwater & Agriculture
• Saltwater intrusion contaminates groundwater.
• Tuvalu: Traditional pulaka pits (taro cultivation) becoming unproductive due to salinity. - Displacement & Climate Refugees
• Pacific Islands: Increasing migration to New Zealand and Australia.
• Carteret Islands (Papua New Guinea): Known as the world’s first climate refugees (resettlement since 2009). - Economic Vulnerability
• Tourism & fisheries—the main sources of revenue—are severely threatened.
• Seychelles & Mauritius: Coral bleaching and fish stock depletion reduce income. - Threat to Sovereignty & Identity
• International law challenges: Nations losing territory may lose EEZ (Exclusive Economic Zone) rights.
• Cultural loss: Sacred sites and traditional practices vanish with submerged lands.
Examples of Mitigation & Adaptation:
- Maldives: Announced “floating city” project to counter sea-level rise.
• Tuvalu: Creating a “digital nation” to preserve sovereignty online.
• International cooperation: Paris Agreement (2015) & Loss and Damage Fund (COP28, 2023) targeting vulnerable nations.
Conclusion:
Island nations stand at the frontline of climate change, with their very existence at stake.
• The crisis is not merely environmental but also humanitarian, economic, and geopolitical.
• Global community must act decisively by ensuring climate finance, technological support, and strong emission cuts to safeguard these nations from disappearing.
5.What are non-farm primary activities? How are these activities related to physiographic features in India? Discuss with suitable examples. (Answer in 150 words) – 10
गैर-कृषि प्राथमिक गतिविधियाँ क्या हैं? ये गतिविधियाँ भारत में भौगोलिक विशेषताओं से कैसे संबंधित हैं? उपयुक्त उदाहरण सहित विवेचना कीजिए। (उत्तर 150 शब्दों में दीजिए) – 10
Primary activities are those directly dependent on natural resources. While agriculture dominates, non-farm primary activities include activities that exploit natural resources but are not related to crop farming.
• These activities are closely linked to India’s physiographic features such as mountains, plains, plateaus, coasts, and deserts.
Types of Non-Farm Primary Activities & Their Physiographic Linkages:
Fishing and Pisciculture:
- Coastal plains and long coastline (7,500 km) encourage marine fishing (e.g., Kerala, Gujarat, Tamil Nadu).
• Inland fisheries thrive in riverine plains (e.g., Ganga-Brahmaputra basin, Andhra Pradesh tanks).
• Example: Pulicat Lake (Andhra Pradesh–Tamil Nadu) known for prawn and lagoon fishing.
Forestry and Lumbering:
- Himalayas: Coniferous forests → timber, pine resin (Jammu & Kashmir, Himachal Pradesh).
• Western Ghats & North-East: Evergreen forests → teak, bamboo, medicinal plants.
• Example: Assam and Arunachal Pradesh – bamboo-based handicrafts and paper industry.
Mining and Quarrying:
- Plateau regions rich in minerals → Jharkhand, Odisha, Chhattisgarh (iron ore, coal, bauxite).
• Himalayan region: limestone and gypsum mining.
• Example: Singrauli (Madhya Pradesh–Uttar Pradesh border) – coal mining hub.
Animal Rearing & Pastoralism:
- Arid & semi-arid Rajasthan – camel rearing for transport and wool.
• Himalayan meadows – sheep and yak rearing (Pashmina wool in Ladakh).
• Example: Raikas of Rajasthan known for camel pastoralism.
Hunting, Gathering and Collection of Minor Forest Products (MFPs):
- Tribal regions of Bastar (Chhattisgarh) and Jharkhand depend on collection of mahua flowers, tendu leaves, sal seeds, lac.
• These are linked to dense forests of central India.
Salt Production:
- Coastal Gujarat – Sambhar & Rann of Kutch salt pans.
• Physiography: saline coastal lowlands and desert depressions.
Conclusion
- Non-farm primary activities form an integral part of India’s rural and tribal economy, providing livelihood beyond agriculture.
• Their distribution is strongly influenced by physiography—mountains encourage forestry & pastoralism, plateaus foster mining, coasts support fishing & salt-making.
• Thus, physiographic diversity of India ensures a wide spectrum of non-farm primary activities, contributing to regional development and economic sustainability.
6.Explain briefly the ecological and economic benefits of solar energy generation in India with suitable examples. (Answer in 150 words) – 10
भारत में सौर ऊर्जा उत्पादन के पारिस्थितिक और आर्थिक लाभों की संक्षिप्त व्याख्या कीजिए। उपयुक्त उदाहरण सहित। (उत्तर 150 शब्दों में दीजिए) – 10
Solar energy, as a renewable and clean source, plays a pivotal role in India’s transition towards sustainable development. With abundant solar radiation, India has immense potential to harness solar power, reducing dependence on fossil fuels while addressing ecological and economic challenges. India’s cumulative installed solar power capacity reached 119.02 GW as of July 31, 2025.
Ecological Benefits of Solar Energy:
- Reduction in Carbon Emissions:
• Solar power generation avoids greenhouse gases; e.g., India saved about 27 million tonnes of CO₂ in 2023 through solar projects. - Conservation of Natural Resources:
• Reduces dependence on coal and oil, conserving finite resources. - Pollution-free Energy:
• Unlike thermal power plants, solar energy does not emit particulate matter, SO₂, or NOx, improving air quality. - Land-use Sustainability through Innovation:
• Floating solar plants on reservoirs (e.g., Ramagundam, Telangana, 100 MW) minimize land pressure and prevent water evaporation.
Economic Benefits of Solar Energy:
- Energy Security & Import Reduction:
• India imports crude oil and coal; solar reduces this burden. For example, Kurnool Solar Park (Andhra Pradesh, 1,000 MW) reduces coal dependency. - Employment Generation:
• Solar sector created nearly 1.6 lakh jobs (IRENA, 2023) in manufacturing, installation, and maintenance. - Low Operating Costs:
• After initial setup, solar plants have minimal maintenance, ensuring long-term cost savings. - Boost to Rural Economy:
• Solar pumps (PM-KUSUM scheme) help farmers irrigate fields at low cost, reducing reliance on diesel. - Attracting Investments:
• Large parks like Bhadla Solar Park (Rajasthan, 2,245 MW, world’s largest) attracted foreign & domestic investment, making India a global solar hub.
Conclusion:
Solar energy in India symbolizes the harmony of ecology and economy. It reduces carbon footprints, promotes clean growth, and provides employment while ensuring energy self-reliance. With schemes like National Solar Mission and PM-KUSUM, India is moving towards its target of 500 GW renewable capacity by 2030, ensuring sustainable and inclusive growth.
7.What are Tsunamis? How and where are they formed? What are their consequences? Explain with examples. (Answer in 150 words) – 10
सुनामी क्या है? यह कैसे और कहाँ उत्पन्न होती है? इसके परिणाम क्या हैं? उदाहरण सहित स्पष्ट कीजिए। (उत्तर 150 शब्दों में दीजिए) – 10
Tsunami is a series of large ocean waves caused by the displacement of water due to undersea earthquakes, volcanic eruptions, or landslides.
Formation of Tsunamis:
• Undersea Earthquakes: Sudden vertical movement of tectonic plates (e.g., subduction zones like the Pacific Ring of Fire).
• Volcanic Eruptions: Explosive eruptions or collapse of volcanic islands (e.g., Krakatoa eruption, 1883).
• Landslides: Submarine or coastal landslides displacing water.
• Glacial Calving: Sudden fall of large ice masses into oceans.
Regions Where Tsunamis are Formed:
• Pacific Ocean (Ring of Fire): Most tsunami-prone zone (Japan, Indonesia, Chile).
• Indian Ocean: Subduction of Indo-Australian Plate beneath Eurasian Plate (e.g., 2004 Indian Ocean Tsunami).
• Mediterranean Sea: Due to tectonic collision zones.
• Atlantic Ocean (rare): E.g., 1755 Lisbon Tsunami caused by an earthquake.
Consequences of Tsunamis:
• Loss of Lives & Property: 2004 Indian Ocean Tsunami killed ~2.3 lakh people across 14 countries.
• Economic Impact: Destruction of coastal infrastructure, fisheries, ports, and tourism industry.
• Environmental Damage: Saltwater intrusion, soil salinization, destruction of mangroves and coral reefs.
• Social Impact: Large-scale displacement, mental trauma, and loss of livelihoods.
• Geopolitical Impact: Need for regional cooperation in disaster management (e.g., Indian Ocean Tsunami Warning System, 2005).
Examples:
• 2004 Indian Ocean Tsunami: Triggered by 9.1 magnitude earthquake off Sumatra; devastated Indonesia, India, Sri Lanka, Thailand.
• 2011 Japan Tsunami (Tohoku): Caused by 9.0 earthquake; led to Fukushima nuclear disaster.
• 1883 Krakatoa Eruption: Generated giant waves, killing 36,000 people in Indonesia.
Conclusion:
Tsunamis are among the most destructive natural disasters, combining geological, environmental, and human dimensions. Early warning systems, coastal ecosystem protection (mangroves, coral reefs), and community preparedness are crucial for reducing their impact.
8.How does smart city in India, address the issues of urban poverty and distributive justice? (Answer in 150 words) – 10
भारत में स्मार्ट शहर, शहरी गरीबी और वितरणात्मक न्याय के मुद्दों को कैसे संबोधित करता है? (उत्तर 150 शब्दों में दीजिए) – 10
Smart Cities Mission (2015) aims to promote sustainable and inclusive cities providing core infrastructure, decent quality of life, and smart solutions.Apart from technology-driven urban growth, it also seeks to address urban poverty, inequality, and distributive justice.
Affordable Housing & Shelter:
- Projects like Pradhan Mantri Awas Yojana (PMAY-Urban) integrated with Smart Cities provide affordable housing to urban poor.
• Example: Pune Smart City has developed thousands of EWS (Economically Weaker Section) housing units.
Urban Mobility & Inclusivity:
- Development of low-cost public transport, smart e-buses, and last-mile connectivity benefits daily wage earners and migrant workers.
• Example: Ahmedabad Smart City—BRTS corridors ensure affordable, reliable transport for poor communities.
Access to Basic Services:
- Smart water supply, sanitation, waste management, and energy-efficient street lighting reduce health burdens on slum dwellers.
• Example: Indore Smart City—100% household waste segregation, improving hygiene in slum areas.
Digital Inclusion & Skill Development:
- Smart Cities promote digital literacy centres, skill training, and e-governance platforms for citizen participation.
• Example: Bhubaneswar Smart City—Skill training under “Socially Smart Bhubaneswar” for slum youth, especially women.
Health & Education Equity:
- Smart health kiosks, e-clinics, and smart classrooms extend affordable services to underprivileged sections.
• Example: Bhopal Smart City—health ATMs in poorer areas providing affordable diagnostic services.
Employment & Livelihoods:
- Smart city projects create jobs in construction, waste recycling, transport, and IT-enabled services.
• Example: Kochi Smart City—ICT hubs and urban renewal projects generating employment for local youth.
Promotion of Distributive Justice:
- Ensures equal access to urban opportunities by focusing on marginalized groups.
• Participatory planning ensures slum dwellers and poor communities are included in decision-making.
• Example: Pune & Varanasi Smart Cities involve community organizations in project design.
Conclusion
- The Smart Cities Mission is not just about technology, but about inclusive urban development.
• By addressing housing, mobility, healthcare, sanitation, and livelihoods, it reduces urban poverty and advances distributive justice.
• The real challenge is ensuring scalability and equity so that no urban poor are left behind in India’s journey towards smart urbanization.
9.The ethos of civil service in India stand for the combination of professionalism with nationalistic consciousness – Elucidate. (Answer in 150 words) – 10
भारत में सिविल सेवा का नैतिकतंत्र पेशेवरता और राष्ट्रीय चेतना के संयोजन के लिए खड़ा है – स्पष्ट कीजिए। (उत्तर 150 शब्दों में दीजिए) – 10
Civil services in India are regarded as the “steel frame” of governance. Their ethos is rooted in two pillars – Professionalism (efficiency, neutrality, integrity, competence) and Nationalistic Consciousness (commitment to India’s unity, democracy, and inclusive development).
• The combination ensures that civil servants act not only as efficient administrators but also as guardians of national interest.
Professionalism in Civil Services:
- Merit-based selection: Through UPSC and State PSC examinations ensuring competence.
• Political neutrality: Officers implement policies irrespective of ruling party ideology.
• Rule of law: Upholding constitutional supremacy and legal procedures.
• Efficiency in governance: E-governance initiatives like Digital India, GST, and JAM Trinity for transparent service delivery.
• Crisis management expertise: Professional response during natural disasters like Cyclone Fani (2019) and COVID-19 pandemic.
Nationalistic Consciousness in Civil Services:
- Constitutional values: Upholding equality, justice, and liberty for all citizens.
• Unity in diversity: Promoting harmony in multi-ethnic, multi-linguistic India (e.g., handling insurgency in North-East with developmental approach).
• Inclusive development: Ensuring last-mile delivery of schemes like MGNREGA, Ayushman Bharat, and PMGSY.
• Public welfare orientation: Prioritizing national interest above personal gain—seen in officers like E. Sreedharan (Metro Man), who combined technical expertise with patriotic service.
• National security role: Civil servants work with armed forces in internal security (e.g., district collectors coordinating with paramilitary forces in Maoist areas).
Synergy of Professionalism & Nationalistic Spirit:
- Aspirational Districts Programme (2018): Professional monitoring tools + nationalist vision of balanced regional growth.
• Swachh Bharat Mission: Administrative efficiency combined with national consciousness of hygiene & dignity.
• COVID-19 vaccination drive: Logistical professionalism blended with patriotic commitment to safeguard citizens.
• Chandrayaan & ISRO missions: Technical professionalism of scientists with national pride in space achievements.
Challenges:
- Political interference undermining neutrality.
• Corruption and red-tapism eroding trust.
• Capacity gaps in adapting to new technological and global challenges.
Way Forward:
- Strengthen Mission Karmayogi for ethical and professional training.
• Enforce performance-based accountability.
• Encourage citizen-centric and technology-driven governance.
• Reaffirm commitment to constitutional morality and national service.
Conclusion:
- The ethos of civil service in India is not just about efficiency but about serving the nation with integrity and dedication.
• When professionalism is guided by nationalistic consciousness, civil servants become true guardians of India’s democracy and catalysts for inclusive development.
10.Do you think that globalization results in only an aggressive consumer culture? Justify your answer. (Answer in 150 words) – 10
क्या आपको लगता है कि वैश्वीकरण का परिणाम केवल आक्रामक उपभोक्ता संस्कृति है? अपने उत्तर का औचित्य सिद्ध कीजिए। (उत्तर 150 शब्दों में दीजिए) – 10
Introduction
- Globalization refers to the increasing interconnectedness of economies, societies, and cultures across the world.
• Critics often argue that it promotes an aggressive consumer culture driven by materialism, brand obsession, and consumerism.
• However, globalization has also enabled knowledge exchange, cultural fusion, technology transfer, and global cooperation.
Globalization and Consumer Culture:
- Proliferation of multinational corporations and global brands (e.g., McDonald’s, Zara, Amazon) encourages mass consumerism.
• Rise of fast fashion and planned obsolescence reflects aggressive consumption patterns.
• Social media and digital platforms promote a culture of status-driven consumption and brand consciousness.
Globalization Beyond Consumerism:
- Cultural Exchange: Globalization fosters appreciation of different cuisines, films, art, and languages (e.g., Korean K-pop, Yoga’s global spread).
• Knowledge & Education: International collaborations, foreign universities, MOOCs expand learning opportunities.
• Technology & Innovation: Access to advanced medical care, digital platforms, AI, and green technologies.
• Economic Growth: Boosts exports, foreign investment, and job creation (e.g., India’s IT sector rise due to outsourcing).
• Global Solidarity: Pandemic response, climate action (Paris Agreement), and UN-led initiatives show cooperation beyond consumerism.
Examples:
- Aggressive Consumerism: Black Friday sales in the USA, fast-food culture in urban India.
• Beyond Consumerism: International Solar Alliance (led by India), G-20 climate commitments, global health research collaborations.
Conclusion>
Globalization indeed promotes consumer culture, but it cannot be reduced only to that. It is a multifaceted process—spreading ideas, technology, and cooperation while also posing cultural and ethical challenges.The need is to balance consumerism with sustainable practices and harness globalization for inclusive, knowledge-driven, and environmentally conscious growth.
11.Mahatma Jotirao Phule’s writings and efforts of social reforms included issues of almost all subaltern classes. Discuss. (Answer in 250 words) – 15
महात्मा जोतीराव फुले के लेखन एवं सामाजिक सुधार के प्रयासों में लगभग सभी उपेक्षित वर्गों की समस्याओं को समाहित किया गया था। विवेचना कीजिए। (उत्तर 250 शब्दों में दीजिए) – 15
Mahatma Jotirao Phule (1827–1890), a pioneering social reformer from Maharashtra, emerged as the voice of the marginalized during the 19th century. His writings and reform efforts addressed the plight of women, Shudras, Dalits, peasants, and other oppressed classes, challenging the dominance of caste hierarchy and Brahmanical orthodoxy.
Education for All:
- Founded the Satya Shodhak Samaj (1873) to promote truth-seeking and equality.
- Established the first girls’ school in Pune (1848) along with his wife Savitribai Phule.
- Advocated universal, compulsory, and free education, especially for lower castes and women.
Abolition of Caste Discrimination:
- Denounced Brahmanical dominance and rituals that perpetuated inequality.
- His book “Gulamgiri” (Slavery, 1873) compared the plight of Indian lower castes with African-American slaves.
- Worked for the upliftment of Dalits and backward castes through social solidarity and self-respect movements.
Women’s Empowerment:
- Opened orphanages and widow homes for destitute women.
- Opposed practices like child marriage and Sati, while advocating widow remarriage.
- Savitribai Phule, under his guidance, became the first female teacher of modern India.
Peasant and Agricultural Reforms:
- Criticized the exploitation of peasants by moneylenders, landlords, and the British revenue system.
- His work “Shetkaryacha Asud” (Cultivator’s Whipcord, 1881) highlighted the hardships of farmers.
- Advocated land reforms and just taxation policies to protect cultivators.
Promotion of Social Equality and Justice:
- Through Satya Shodhak Samaj, propagated inter-caste dining, rejection of Brahmanical priesthood, and equal human dignity.
- Emphasized rationality, equality, and dignity of labor.
- Inspired later social reformers like Dr. B. R. Ambedkar, who regarded Phule as his mentor.
Limitations :
While Phule’s efforts were remarkably inclusive for his era, they did not explicitly cover all subaltern classes:
- His focus was primarily on Maharashtra and Hindu society, with less direct engagement on Muslim or Christian subalterns, though his universalist ideals (e.g., equality in Satyashodhak Samaj) could extend broadly.
- Economic reforms for industrial workers or urban laborers were nascent, as India’s industrialization was limited then; his peasant focus was agrarian-centric.
- Critics note his anti-Brahmin rhetoric sometimes generalized, potentially alienating allies, but this was strategic to empower subaltern voices.
Conclusion:
Mahatma Jotirao Phule’s reforms were revolutionary as they encompassed all subaltern classes—Dalits, women, peasants, and other marginalized groups. His writings like Gulamgiri and Shetkaryacha Asud, and initiatives such as the Satya Shodhak Samaj, laid the foundation for social justice, equality, and empowerment in modern India. He remains a beacon of inspiration for India’s democratic and egalitarian values.
12.Trace India’s consolidation process during early phase of independence in terms of polity, economy, education and international relations. (Answer in 250 words) – 15
भारत के स्वतंत्रता के प्रारंभिक चरण में भारत के समेकन की प्रक्रिया का राजनीति, अर्थव्यवस्था, शिक्षा और अंतर्राष्ट्रीय संबंधों के संदर्भ में अनुशीलन कीजिए। (उत्तर 250 शब्दों में दीजिए) – 15
At the time of independence in 1947, India faced the dual challenge of political integration and socio-economic reconstruction. The leaders under Jawaharlal Nehru and Sardar Patel pursued policies that ensured the survival and consolidation of the newly independent nation. This consolidation can be traced across polity, economy, education, and international relations.
Polity:
- Integration of Princely States (1947–1950):
– Led by Sardar Vallabhbhai Patel and V.P. Menon, around 562 princely states were integrated into the Indian Union.
– Use of Instruments of Accession and, in some cases, police/military action (e.g., Hyderabad in 1948, Junagadh). - Adoption of the Constitution (1950):
– Provided a democratic framework, federal structure, Fundamental Rights, and Directive Principles.
– Established parliamentary democracy with universal adult franchise. - Reorganization of States (1956):
– Linguistic reorganization created cohesive administrative units, reducing secessionist tendencies.
Economy:
- Adoption of Planning Process (1951):
– Launch of the First Five-Year Plan focused on agriculture, irrigation, and community development.
– Reflected Nehru’s vision of a mixed economy. - Industrial Policy Resolution (1956):
– Laid the foundation for public sector-led industrialization.
– Heavy industries, steel plants (Bhilai, Rourkela, Durgapur) established with international cooperation. - Land Reforms:
– Abolition of Zamindari system and tenancy reforms aimed at social justice.
– Success was uneven across states, but it marked the first step toward agrarian restructuring.
Education:
- University Education Commission (1948–49, Radhakrishnan Commission):
– Recommended reforms in higher education and stressed the role of universities in national integration. - Secondary Education Commission (1952–53):
– Focused on vocationalization and diversification of secondary education. - Establishment of Institutions of Excellence:
– IITs (Kharagpur, 1951), AIIMS (1956), and UGC (1956).
– Expansion of literacy programmes and emphasis on scientific temper.
International Relations:
- Non-Aligned Movement (NAM):
– India, under Nehru, adopted a policy of non-alignment to maintain independence in foreign policy amidst Cold War rivalry. - Panchsheel Agreement (1954):
– Five principles of peaceful coexistence signed with China. - Support for Decolonization:
– India supported independence movements in Asia and Africa, strengthening its moral leadership. - Membership in International Institutions:
– Active role in UN peacekeeping missions and advocacy for nuclear disarmament.
Conclusion:
The early phase of independence was marked by political integration, economic planning, educational reforms, and a visionary foreign policy. These measures not only consolidated India internally but also positioned it as a responsible actor globally. Despite challenges like poverty, illiteracy, and regional aspirations, the foundations laid during this period ensured India’s survival as a united, democratic, and forward-looking nation.
13.The French Revolution has enduring relevance to the contemporary world: Explain. (Answer in 250 words) – 15
फ्रांसीसी क्रांति की समसामयिक विश्व के प्रति प्रासंगिकता आज भी निरंतर प्रासंगिक है। स्पष्ट कीजिए। (उत्तर 250 शब्दों में दीजिए) – 15
The French Revolution (1789–1799) was a landmark event in world history. It overthrew monarchy, challenged feudal privileges, and spread ideas of liberty, equality, and fraternity.
• Its ideals continue to inspire democratic movements, constitutional values, and human rights in the contemporary world.
Abolition of Absolute Monarchy:
- Ended the “Divine Right of Kings” in France.
• Inspired the rise of constitutional democracies worldwide.
• Example: Democratic transitions in countries like Nepal (2008) and Bhutan (2008) reflect the decline of monarchy.
Concept of Liberty, Equality, and Fraternity:
- Liberty: Freedom of speech, press, and conscience became universal democratic values.
• Equality: Rejection of feudal hierarchy, promotion of legal equality.
• Fraternity: Idea of social solidarity and collective welfare.
• Example: These values form the Preamble of the Indian Constitution and the Universal Declaration of Human Rights (1948).
Rise of Nationalism:
- Revolution ignited patriotism and collective identity.
• Spread nationalism across Europe, leading to unification of Germany and Italy.
• Example: Anti-colonial struggles in India, Vietnam, and Africa drew inspiration from revolutionary nationalism.
Codification of Laws:
- Napoleon’s Civil Code (1804) ensured equality before law, property rights, and secular authority.
• Example: Influenced modern civil law systems in Europe, Latin America, and parts of Asia.
Secularism and Separation of Church & State:
- Revolution curtailed the political power of clergy.
• Promoted secular governance and religious tolerance.
• Example: French model of laïcité (secularism) influences debates on religion and state in countries today.
Social Justice and Popular Sovereignty:
- Revolution emphasized that sovereignty lies with the people, not rulers.
• Sparked movements for universal adult franchise and workers’ rights.
• Example: Labour reforms, universal suffrage, and welfare state models across democracies.
Contemporary Resonance:
- Civil rights movements in the USA drew from revolutionary principles.
• Arab Spring (2010–2012) echoed demands for liberty and democracy.
• Ongoing global debates on equality, human rights, and democratic accountability continue to reflect French revolutionary ethos.
Conclusion:
The French Revolution was not a mere historical upheaval, but a philosophical and political turning point. Its legacy—democracy, equality before law, nationalism, and secularism—remains deeply relevant in addressing contemporary challenges of inequality, authoritarianism, and social injustice.
• Thus, the Revolution continues to serve as a moral compass for modern democratic societies.
14.Give a geographical explanation of the distribution of off-shore oil resources of the world. How are they different from the on-shore occurrences of oil reserves? (Answer in 250 words) – 15
विश्व के अपतटीय तेल संसाधनों के वितरण का भौगोलिक स्पष्टीकरण कीजिए। ये तेल भंडारों की तटीय घटनाओं से किस प्रकार भिन्न हैं? (उत्तर 250 शब्दों में दीजिए) – 15
On-shore and off-shore refer to the location of activities, operations, or resources, typically in industries like energy, finance, or technology.
On-shore: Activities or operations conducted on land. For example:
In energy, on-shore wind farms or oil rigs are located on land.
Off-shore: Activities or operations conducted at sea or outside a country’s borders. For example:
In energy, off-shore wind farms or oil platforms are located in bodies of water, like oceans or seas.
Major Offshore Oil Regions:
North Sea (Europe):
• Located mainly off the coasts of the UK and Norway.
• One of the world’s most developed offshore oil zones since the 1970s.
• Important fields: Brent and Forties.
Persian Gulf (Middle East):
• Offshore fields of Saudi Arabia, Iran, Qatar, UAE, and Kuwait.
• Accounts for a significant portion of OPEC production.
• Examples: Zakum (UAE), Safaniya (Saudi Arabia).
West Africa (Gulf of Guinea):
• Nigeria, Angola, and Equatorial Guinea have deep-water offshore reserves.
• Known for light, sweet crude oil.
Latin America (Brazil & Mexico):
• Brazil’s Campos and Santos Basins (pre-salt offshore reserves).
• Mexico’s Gulf of Mexico offshore oil fields contribute significantly to PEMEX output.
North America (Gulf of Mexico):
• Major offshore oil region for the USA and Mexico.
• Deep-water drilling has increased since the 1990s (e.g., Thunder Horse field).
South & Southeast Asia:
• Offshore fields in India (Bombay High, Krishna-Godavari Basin).
• Offshore reserves in Indonesia, Malaysia, and Vietnam.
Difference between Offshore and Onshore Oil Reserves:
Offshore Oil Reserves:
• Located under continental shelves and seabeds.
• Require advanced technology such as drilling rigs, floating platforms.
• Higher investment and risk due to harsh marine environment.
• Examples: Bombay High (India), North Sea (Norway/UK), Gulf of Mexico (USA).
Onshore Oil Reserves:
• Found on land in sedimentary basins.
• Easier and cheaper to explore and extract.
• Infrastructure and workforce availability are higher.
• Examples: Ghawar field (Saudi Arabia), Digboi (India), Texas (USA).
Conclusion:
Offshore oil resources have become increasingly important as onshore reserves mature or deplete.While offshore drilling involves higher costs and environmental risks (e.g., oil spills like Deepwater Horizon 2010), it remains vital for energy security. A balanced approach of exploiting both offshore and onshore reserves, alongside a shift to renewables, is essential for sustainable global energy management.
15.How can Artificial Intelligence (AI) and drones be effectively used along with GIS and RS techniques in locational and areal planning? (Answer in 250 words) – 15
स्थानिक तथा क्षेत्रीय योजना बनाने में कृत्रिम बुद्धिमत्ता (ए.आई.) और ड्रोन, भौगोलिक सूचना प्रणाली (जी.आई.एस.) एवं दूर संवेदी तकनीक (आर.एस.) के साथ किस प्रकार प्रभावी रूप से प्रयुक्त किए जा सकते हैं? (उत्तर 250 शब्दों में दीजिए) – 15
Locational and areal planning involves identifying optimal sites and efficient use of land resources for urban development, agriculture, infrastructure, and environmental management.
• Integration of AI, drones, GIS (Geographic Information Systems), and RS (Remote Sensing) provides data-driven, real-time, and precise solutions.
Applications :
AI in Locational Planning:
• Predicts urban growth and traffic patterns using big data.
• Example: AI-based traffic simulations in Bengaluru Smart City project to reduce congestion.
• Helps in site suitability analysis for industries, schools, and hospitals.
Drones in Areal Mapping:
• Provide high-resolution aerial images for land use and disaster-prone areas.
• Example: Drones used in Uttarakhand for mapping landslide-prone zones.
• Aid in monitoring crop health and irrigation planning in precision agriculture.
GIS in Spatial Planning:
• Integrates socio-economic, demographic, and environmental data.
• Example: GIS used in Delhi Master Plan 2041 for zoning and infrastructure development.
• Supports watershed management, forest conservation, and smart city planning.
Remote Sensing (RS) in Areal Assessment:
• Provides large-scale data on vegetation, soil, and climate patterns.
• Example: RS used by ISRO’s Bhuvan Portal for urban expansion and flood risk mapping.
• Essential for climate change impact studies and natural resource management.
Integration of AI + Drones + GIS + RS:
• Combines real-time drone imagery with GIS layers, analyzed by AI for accurate planning.
• Example: Pradhan Mantri Fasal Bima Yojana (PMFBY) – drones + RS + AI used for crop loss assessment and insurance claims.
• Smart Cities Mission – integrates AI-enabled surveillance, GIS mapping, and RS data for efficient urban planning.
Conclusion:
The synergy of AI, drones, GIS, and RS ensures locational and areal planning is scientific, precise, and sustainable.From urban infrastructure to disaster management and agriculture, these tools transform governance into a data-driven, transparent, and citizen-centric process.
16.Discuss how the changes in shape and sizes of continents and ocean basins of the planet take place due to tectonic movements of the crustal masses. (Answer in 250 words) – 15
चर्चा कीजिए कि पृथ्वी के महाद्वीपों एवं महासागरों के आकार और आकार (माप) में परिवर्तन स्थलमंडलीय खंडों की टेक्टोनिक गति के कारण कैसे होते हैं। (उत्तर 250 शब्दों में दीजिए) – 15
Tectonic movements refer to the large-scale motions of Earth’s lithospheric plates, which are massive, rigid segments of the Earth’s crust and upper mantle. Their continuous movement reshapes continents and ocean basins through processes like divergence, convergence, and transform faults.
Continental Drift (Alfred Wegener, 1912):
• Suggested that all continents were once part of a supercontinent Pangaea.
• Pangaea broke apart ~200 million years ago due to plate movements.
• Example: South America and Africa coastlines fit like puzzle pieces.
Seafloor Spreading:
• At mid-oceanic ridges, magma rises and creates new crust, pushing plates apart.
• Leads to the widening of ocean basins.
• Example: Mid-Atlantic Ridge → Atlantic Ocean continues to widen.
Convergent Plate Boundaries:
• When two plates collide, one subducts beneath the other, shrinking ocean basins or uplifting mountains.
• Example: Indian Plate colliding with Eurasian Plate → formation of the Himalayas and uplift of the Tibetan Plateau.
• Example: Pacific Plate subduction → narrowing of the Pacific Ocean basin.
Rift Valleys and New Oceans:
• Divergent forces on continental crust split landmasses, creating rift valleys that may become oceans.
• Example: East African Rift Valley → potential future ocean basin.
• Example: Red Sea → young ocean formed by divergence of African and Arabian plates.
Transform Faults and Rearrangement:
• Plates sliding past each other alter coastlines and landforms.
• Example: San Andreas Fault (California) → reshaping of western North American margin.
Conclusion:
• Tectonic movements constantly reshape the Earth’s surface, changing the size and configuration of continents and ocean basins.These processes are slow but cumulative, explaining why past supercontinents like Pangaea fragmented and why future continents may reunite into another supercontinent (e.g., “Pangaea Proxima” predicted after 200 million years).
• Thus, Earth remains a dynamic planet where tectonic forces maintain continuous evolution of its land and water bodies.
17.Discuss the distribution and density of population in the Ganga River Basin with special reference to land, soil and water resources. (Answer in 250 words) – 15
गंगा नदी बेसिन में जनसंख्या के वितरण एवं घनत्व की भूमि, मृदा एवं जल संसाधनों के विशेष सन्दर्भ में चर्चा कीजिए। (उत्तर 250 शब्दों में दीजिए) – 15The Ganga River Basin, spread across Uttarakhand, Uttar Pradesh, Bihar, Jharkhand, and West Bengal, is one of the most densely populated regions in the world.
• Rich land, soil, and water resources have historically attracted dense human settlement and agriculture.
• It supports nearly 40% of India’s population while covering only about 26% of India’s geographical area.
Distribution of Population:
- Uttarakhand (Upper Ganga basin): Population is sparse in hilly terrain; settlements concentrated in valleys and foothills.
• Uttar Pradesh (Middle Ganga plain): Extremely high density (>800 persons/sq. km) due to fertile alluvial soil and irrigation.
• Bihar & Jharkhand: Bihar has one of the highest rural population densities (>1100 persons/sq. km), while Jharkhand shows uneven distribution due to plateau areas.
• West Bengal (Lower Ganga delta): Very high density in Kolkata-Hooghly industrial belt and fertile deltaic tracts.
Density of Population:
- Average density in the basin: ~550 persons/sq. km (higher than national average of 382).
• Pockets of extremely high density: Eastern UP, North Bihar, and Hooghly delta region.
• Sparse population in Himalayan regions (Uttarakhand) and Chotanagpur plateau (Jharkhand).
Role of Land, Soil, and Water Resources:
Land Resources:
• Flat, fertile alluvial plains → support intensive agriculture.
• Abundant land for cultivation in Uttar Pradesh and Bihar.
Soil Resources:
• Rich alluvial soil, replenished annually by floods.
• High fertility suitable for rice, wheat, sugarcane, and jute cultivation.
• Example: Indo-Gangetic plains form India’s food bowl.
Water Resources:
• Ganga and its tributaries (Yamuna, Ghaghara, Gandak, Kosi, Hooghly) provide perennial water supply.
• Extensive irrigation network → canals in UP, tube-wells in Bihar.
• Hydropower potential in Uttarakhand and multipurpose projects like Tehri Dam and Farakka Barrage.
Examples:
- Varanasi–Kanpur belt (UP): Dense population due to fertile land and irrigation-based agriculture.
• North Bihar: High rural population density, supported by fertile soil but challenged by recurrent floods.
• Kolkata-Hooghly industrial region: High urban density due to availability of water, fertile delta, and port facilities.
Conclusion:
- The distribution and density of population in the Ganga Basin are intrinsically linked to its land, soil, and water resources, making it a cradle of Indian civilization.
• However, this high density exerts pressure on natural resources, leading to challenges like water pollution, soil degradation, and overpopulation.
• Sustainable management of resources is essential to maintain the basin’s role as India’s economic and cultural heartland.
18.How do you account for the growing fast food industries given that there are increased health concerns in modern society? Illustrate your answer with the Indian experience. (Answer in 250 words) – 15
आधुनिक समाज में बढ़ती हुई स्वास्थ्य संबंधी चिंताओं को ध्यान में रखते हुए फास्ट फूड उद्योगों की वृद्धि का आप कैसे लेखा-जोखा करेंगे? भारतीय अनुभव के साथ अपने उत्तर को स्पष्ट कीजिए। (उत्तर 250 शब्दों में दीजिए) – 15
The fast-food industry has emerged as one of the fastest-growing sectors worldwide, including India.
• Despite rising awareness of lifestyle diseases such as obesity, diabetes, and heart ailments, the consumption of fast food continues to expand.
• This paradox can be explained by social, economic, and cultural factors.
Reasons for Growth of Fast-Food Industry:
Urbanization and Lifestyle Changes:
• Rising number of nuclear families and working professionals depend on convenient, ready-to-eat food.
• Long working hours and urban stress increase preference for quick meals.
Affordability and Accessibility:
• Global chains (McDonald’s, KFC, Domino’s) offer low-cost menus.
• Home delivery apps (Swiggy, Zomato) expand accessibility to fast food.
Youth Culture and Marketing:
• Aggressive advertisements targeting youth.
• Peer influence, aspiration for “western lifestyle.”
Taste and Variety:
• Fast food is often tastier, spicier, and more appealing to younger generations.
• Customization in India – McAloo Tikki (McDonald’s), Paneer Zinger (KFC).
Globalization & Cultural Influence:
• Entry of multinational brands reshaped eating habits.
• Food courts in malls, airports, multiplexes promote fast-food culture.
Health Concerns:
Lifestyle Diseases:
• WHO data links high junk food intake to rising obesity, diabetes, hypertension.
• India: “Diabetes capital of the world” with over 100 million diabetics (ICMR 2023).
Nutritional Imbalance:
• High sugar, salt, and trans-fat content.
• Declining traditional dietary habits (millets, pulses, homemade food).
Mental Health:
• Studies link junk food to stress, depression, and addiction-like cravings.
The Indian Experience:
Hybrid Fast-Food Culture:
• Global + Local adaptation: “Masala Dosa Burger,” “Paneer Pizza.”
• Chains introducing vegetarian and Jain-friendly menus.
Digital Push:
• Delivery apps driving massive growth post-COVID.
• Tier-2 and Tier-3 cities witnessing boom in quick-service restaurants.
Public Health Campaigns:
• “Eat Right India” by FSSAI to promote safe and healthy eating.
• Rise of healthier alternatives: Subway, millet-based cafes, organic brands.
Contradiction:
• Simultaneous increase in health clubs/gyms and fast-food outlets.
• People oscillating between indulgence and fitness.
Conclusion:
- The growth of the fast-food industry, despite health concerns, highlights the tension between convenience and well-being in modern society. In India, while fast-food culture is booming, there is also a rising awareness about healthy eating with government initiatives promoting millets, balanced diets, and food labeling.
• Going forward, the challenge is to strike a balance between consumer demand and public health, ensuring that convenience does not compromise well-being.
19.Achieving sustainable growth with emphasis on environmental protection could come into conflict with poor people’s needs in a country like India – Comment. (Answer in 250 words) – 15
पर्यावरण संरक्षण पर बल के साथ सतत विकास प्राप्त करना, भारत जैसे देश में गरीब लोगों की आवश्यकताओं से टकरा सकता है – टिप्पणी कीजिए। (उत्तर 250 शब्दों में दीजिए) – 15
Sustainable growth aims at balancing economic development, social equity, and environmental protection.In India, with a large section of population below poverty line, tensions often arise between the need for immediate livelihood and long-term environmental sustainability.
Conflict between Sustainability and Poor People’s Needs:
- Dependence on natural resources: Poor communities depend on forests, rivers, and land for fuel, fodder, fishing, and agriculture (e.g., tribals in Central India).
• Restriction through conservation laws: Creation of protected areas like tiger reserves leads to displacement of forest dwellers (e.g., Similipal in Odisha).
• Industrialization vs. livelihood: Closure of polluting industries for clean air impacts daily wage earners in brick kilns, tanneries, or coal mines (e.g., Kanpur tannery shutdowns).
• Energy access vs. environment: Shift from coal to renewable energy may raise electricity costs, affecting affordability for rural poor.
Examples of Balance Efforts:
- MGNREGA + afforestation: Employment in eco-friendly projects provides livelihood and environmental benefits.
• Pradhan Mantri Ujjwala Yojana: Replacing wood-based cooking with LPG reduces deforestation and indoor pollution.
• Solar micro-grids in villages: Promotes clean energy while providing affordable electricity to poor households.
• Ethanol blending policy: Reduces emissions while supporting sugarcane farmers with new markets.
Way Forward:
- Inclusive green growth policies – ensuring affected communities are rehabilitated and provided with alternative livelihoods.
• Skill development for green jobs – solar panel installation, waste management, eco-tourism.
• Participatory governance – involving Gram Sabhas and local communities in conservation decisions.
• Technological innovations – affordable clean cooking solutions, water recycling for agriculture.
Conclusion:
• Sustainable growth in India cannot be achieved at the cost of the poor.
• Instead, policies must ensure environmental protection complements poverty reduction, so that growth is both inclusive and eco-friendly.
20.Does tribal development in India centre around two axes, those of displacement and of rehabilitation? Give your opinion. (Answer in 250 words) – 15
क्या भारत में जनजातीय विकास विस्थापन और पुनर्वास की दो धुरियों पर केन्द्रित है? अपना मत दीजिए। (उत्तर 250 शब्दों में दीजिए) – 15
Tribal communities constitute about 8.6% of India’s population (Census 2011).
• Historically, their development has been closely linked to land, forest, and livelihood rights.
• Large-scale projects such as dams, mining, industries, and conservation initiatives have often led to displacement, making rehabilitation the other critical axis around which tribal development revolves.
Displacement Axis:
- Dams & River Projects: Construction of large dams like Sardar Sarovar (Narmada Valley Project) displaced thousands of tribal families.
• Mining & Industrialization: Tribal areas in Jharkhand, Chhattisgarh, Odisha have witnessed land acquisition for coal, bauxite, and steel plants, uprooting traditional livelihoods.
• Conservation Efforts: Creation of national parks and sanctuaries like Sundarbans, Simlipal, Kanha has also led to eviction of tribal populations.
• Impact: Loss of land, forests, culture, and identity; alienation from mainstream society.
Rehabilitation Axis
- Resettlement Policies: The Right to Fair Compensation and Transparency in Land Acquisition, Rehabilitation and Resettlement Act, 2013 provides legal safeguards.
• Development Programs: Schemes like TRIFED, Van Dhan Yojana, and FRA 2006 (Forest Rights Act) aim at restoring livelihoods.
• Case Example: The Narmada Bachao Andolan highlighted poor rehabilitation, forcing governments to provide land-for-land compensation in certain cases.
• Challenges: Inadequate compensation, delayed implementation, lack of cultural sensitivity in rehabilitation packages.
Beyond Displacement & Rehabilitation :
- Education & Health: Eklavya Model Residential Schools (EMRS), Poshan Abhiyaan.
• Political Empowerment: Reservation in legislatures and Panchayati Raj (PESA Act, 1996).
• Economic Initiatives: Skill development, promotion of minor forest produce, self-help groups.
• Cultural Protection: Preservation of tribal languages, traditions, and festivals.
Conclusion:
Tribal development in India has largely revolved around displacement and rehabilitation due to the state’s emphasis on large development projects. However, true tribal empowerment must move beyond these two axes by focusing on sustainable livelihoods, rights over natural resources, social justice, and cultural preservation.